無形遺産は、複数の世代にわたって伝承された無形文化遺産を指し、これらの遺産は地域社会や集団間の相互作用、そして歴史と環境のつながりを通じて絶えず再創造されています。以下は、音楽、舞踊、建築、祭礼などの代表的な無形遺産に関するガイドです。
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Explore Traditional Music
Korean traditional music is known as gugak. It represents both the music of Korea and the music of the Korean people. Gugak can be categorized in various ways depending on different criteria.
For instance, based on its origins, music that came from China is called dangak, while music traditionally used in royal courts is called hyangak. Additionally, aak refers to the music used in Confucian rituals and other ceremonies. These names also influence the naming of instruments and dances, as seen in the distinction between the dangbipa and hyangbipa (two types of lute), or dangak jeongjae and hyangak jeongjae (court dances).
Categorizing traditional music by its function offers a clearer understanding. Jeongak refers to the music of the royal court and the upper class, while beompae is the music used in Buddhist rituals. Mooak refers to music used in shamanistic rituals, sanso is a genre of solo instrumental music, and pansori is a form of storytelling in which a single performer uses song, speech, and movement to tell long narratives. Japga are popular songs sung by professional singers, minyo are folk songs passed down orally that anyone can sing, and nongak refers to agricultural music used to lift spirits during farming or group labor.
These various forms of traditional Korean music continue to thrive through the bearers of intangible cultural heritage, who have been designated as custodians of the music. Traditional music is not only a medium for appreciation but also a key to understanding the rituals and events of the past. Moreover, it serves as a window into the emotions of the Korean people, reaffirming the sense of community. One of the most well-known folk songs, Arirang, is an embodiment of Korean sentiment, symbolizing both the shared emotions and the unity of the Korean people.
Explore Traditional Dance
Korean traditional dance has evolved over Korea’s long history, shaped by external influences and infused with the emotions and spirit of the Korean people. Dance is an art form that expresses one’s emotions through the body in rhythm with music or beats, so it is closely intertwined with music.
One of the earliest depictions of Korean dance can be found in the Goguryeo-era murals of the Muyongchong Tomb, which show dancers in motion. Records from literature also offer insights into the dances of Baekje, Silla, Gaya, and Goryeo.
By the Joseon Dynasty, dance became more organized and systematized, forming the foundation of today’s Korean traditional dance. These dances can be broadly categorized into four types: religious ceremonial dances, folk dances, gyobang (entertainment) dances, and court dances performed during royal ceremonies.
Religious ceremonial dances can be further divided into shamanistic dances, Buddhist ritual dances, and Confucian ceremonial dances. Shamanistic dances were performed by shamans or during rituals like funerals. Jakbeopchum, the dance performed in Buddhist ceremonies, is accompanied by music during various rituals. In Confucian ceremonies, dances like those seen during the Jongmyo and Munmyo rituals are representative. These dances, called "ilmuh", are divided into "munmu" (symbolizing learning and knowledge) and "mumu" (representing martial arts).
Folk dances were enjoyed by the common people and were often associated with nongak (farmers’ music) and talnori (mask dances). Nongak included dances performed with spinning sangmo hats or drums, while lion dances (sajachum) featured in talnori, alongside the dances performed by individual performers. There were also communal dances enjoyed during harvest festivals or holidays.
Gyobang dances were created and performed by gisaeng (female entertainers). Gisaeng were highly trained in both dance and song, showcasing their expertise. These dances were distinct in their elegance and artistic refinement, often performed for entertainment. Many court dances were also influenced by gyobang dances, as gisaeng frequently participated in royal performances. Well-known examples of gyobang dances that have been passed down include the Salpuri dance and Seungmu. Other dances like the Janggu dance, Sogo dance, and Hallyangmu were developed from gyobang traditions.
Court dances were performed during the jeongjae (royal banquets) held at the palace. Initially, these dances had a strong ceremonial character, but over time, they became more focused on aesthetics and appreciation, reaching high levels of artistic sophistication. New dances were also created, such as Chunaengjeon, which was transformed into a solo performance by Crown Prince Hyomyeong.
Korean traditional dance is characterized by restrained movements and costumes that elegantly flow around the dancer's body. However, each dance also conveys a completely different mood and atmosphere. Therefore, to fully understand Korean traditional dance, one must consider not only the movements but also the accompanying music, context, and historical background.
Explore Traditional Games
Korean traditional games, often referred to as folk games, are activities that provide enjoyment and a break from daily life. While skill is important, the unpredictability of these games adds to their charm. Many traditional games are also played collectively, fostering a strong sense of community.
Among the traditional games that emphasize community spirit are tug-of-war, gossaum (a traditional rope-pulling contest), and chaejonnori (a mock battle game). These games often involve competing with other villages to determine a winner. In contrast, some games are played by smaller groups for enjoyment, such as yutnori, a board game commonly played during the off-season for farming. Ssireum, or traditional Korean wrestling, is a competitive sport where individuals test their strength and technique, often played during festivals.
Games enjoyed by the yangban (noble class) include baetnori (boat games), seonyujulbulnori (a form of firework display during boating), ssangnyuk (a dice game), and tuho (an arrow-throwing game). These games often required significant resources or specialized equipment. There were also performances, such as the Namsadang Nori, where skilled entertainers performed for public enjoyment.
Korean traditional games are closely connected to the agricultural lifestyle of the past. As such, many of these games are still found in rural farming or fishing villages. However, the rapid industrialization and modernization of Korea have led to the disappearance of many traditional games. To preserve this cultural heritage, efforts are being made to continue these traditions through festivals and by designating certain games as intangible cultural heritage.
Explore Martial Arts
Martial arts refer to techniques involving the body or weapons to engage an opponent. Martial arts were crucial in warfare during the Three Kingdoms period, with Goguryeo particularly emphasizing swordsmanship, archery, and gwonbak (a form of hand-to-hand combat akin to modern martial arts).
However, after the late Goryeo Dynasty, with the development of gunpowder and weapons like guns and cannons, there was a tendency to downplay martial arts, except for archery. This trend continued into the early Joseon Dynasty, but after the Imjin War (Japanese invasions of 1592-1598), there was a renewed focus on martial arts. The military restructured its training, developing systems of martial arts that incorporated multiple weapons, including the "Sibpalki Muye" (Eighteen Martial Arts) and the "Isipsaban Muye" (Twenty-Four Martial Arts).
While these martial arts predominantly involved weapons, there were also unarmed combat techniques, such as gwonbeop (martial arts using the body). These skills were tested in the mugwa (military service exam) to select soldiers. One unarmed combat style that has continued to this day is taekkyeon.
Taekkyeon is characterized by graceful, dance-like movements called pumbalkki, and it uses kicks to knock down opponents. Unlike martial arts from other cultures, taekkyeon features large, fluid movements, setting it apart for its softness and elegance.
Archery is also regarded as one of Korea’s prominent martial arts. The Goguryeo tomb murals, such as the Hunting Scene, depict remarkable scenes of archery. Korea has maintained its unique tradition of crafting the gakgung, a composite bow made from water buffalo horns and various other materials. During the Joseon Dynasty, archery was considered an essential virtue for the yangban (nobility), and each government office had a designated archery range called gwandukjeong. Larger towns had dedicated archery grounds, and gukgung (traditional Korean archery) became an important cultural practice. Historical records show that women also participated in archery, and today, many Koreans continue to practice gukgung as a form of physical and mental discipline.
Explore Traditional Crafts
Craftsmanship refers to the creation of objects, and traditional crafts are items made by the Korean people in their everyday lives throughout history. While the primary purpose of crafts is utility, people also desire objects that are beautiful and refined. Naturally, artisans strive to enhance the aesthetic and artistic value of their creations, often elevating these items from mere tools to works of art.
Korean traditional crafts can be categorized based on the materials used: metal, wood, clay, textiles, leather, and paper. In addition, some crafts involve complex combinations of materials, such as traditional musical instruments, gat (traditional hats), hwa-gak (crafts using ox horn), jade crafts, and gold leafing.
Traditional crafts were an integral part of daily life in Korea, but as modern life has drastically changed, many of these crafts have faced a decline. A notable example is the gat, which became obsolete when men stopped wearing topknots. However, in recent years, gat has reemerged as a fashionable accessory and is recognized as a key element in understanding and reviving Korea’s past.
Thus, traditional crafts were once essential to Korean life, and today they provide valuable insights into historical lifestyles. The new crafts created by bearers of intangible cultural heritage not only preserve these traditions but are also celebrated as artistic achievements in their own right.
Explore Traditional Architecture
Traditional Korean architecture is deeply intertwined with cultural heritage, encompassing palaces, royal tombs, temples, seowon (Confucian academies), hyanggyo (local Confucian schools), fortresses, and hanok (traditional Korean houses).
Traditional Korean architecture reflects authority and grandeur, particularly in royal buildings, which are often large and ornate. In contrast, hanok—homes designed for everyday living—incorporate unique construction techniques to ensure comfort in Korea’s natural environment. To endure the cold winters, hanok utilize ondol (underfloor heating), and to provide open, cool spaces for summer, they feature daecheong (large wooden floors). Thus, traditional Korean architecture required numerous skilled artisans in the past.
However, in the modern era, Western-style buildings, along with new materials like steel, concrete, glass, and tiles, became dominant, leading to a decline in traditional architecture. Consequently, many traditional construction artisans, who are designated as intangible cultural heritage bearers, saw their work diminish.
Nevertheless, traditional architecture is being reevaluated for its deep connection to Korea’s natural environment and way of life. Interest in hanok and traditional buildings has grown, and today, many people are incorporating hanok elements into modern homes or building new hanok. Among the artisans preserving these skills are daemokjang (master carpenters), jewajang (master tile makers), and beonwajang (master tile roofers), who continue to uphold the traditions of Korean architecture.
Explore Traditional Art
Korean traditional art encompasses a broad spectrum, including painting, sculpture, crafts, and architecture. However, in the context of intangible cultural heritage, traditional art refers to specific artistic domains.
This includes decorations on craft objects and architectural features, such as the dancheong (painted patterns on buildings), Buddhist paintings that adorn temples, plaques and woodblocks for buildings, screen paintings, and transcribing Buddhist scriptures into sagyong (calligraphic manuscripts).
More specifically, traditional arts include nakjok, the decoration of wooden crafts using pyrography (burning designs into wood), and nakhwa, which involves creating artwork on various materials using a heated iron. Metal crafts often feature intricate carvings or inlaid designs.
In terms of books, the creation of woodblocks (for printing texts) and sagyong, the transcribing of Buddhist scriptures, are significant practices. Dancheong involves applying intricate patterns to buildings, and gakja refers to the creation of carved plaques or woodblocks for buildings. The mounting of paintings and calligraphy into frames or scrolls is known as baechup. Additionally, the carving of wooden Buddhist statues (mokjo) is another form of traditional art.
Explore Traditional Knowledge
Traditional knowledge is vast and diverse. Within the realm of intangible cultural heritage, it is primarily associated with production activities.
A prime example is the haenyeo (female divers) of Jeju Island, who collect seafood without any special diving equipment, a practice rooted in a long-standing tradition. The knowledge and techniques of haenyeo are passed down from experienced divers to the younger generation.
Other examples of traditional knowledge include the salt-making techniques of jeom, traditional fish traps and tidal fishing, and the cultivation and processing of ginseng, a medicinal herb for which Korea is renowned.
Explore Traditional Attire (Hanbok)
Hanbok is the traditional attire of the Korean people. While the garments themselves are tangible, the culture of wearing hanbok is considered intangible cultural heritage. The basic form of hanbok, with pants and a jacket for men and skirts and jackets for women, was already established by the Three Kingdoms period.
Hanbok’s original form can be seen in Goguryeo tomb murals and Silla figurines, and although it underwent various changes throughout the Goryeo and Joseon dynasties, its fundamental structure remained consistent.
The term hanbok, meaning “Korean clothing,” was coined to distinguish it from yangbok (Western-style clothing) that was introduced later. Today, hanbok is not worn as daily attire by most people, but some individuals still wear it regularly. Many Koreans also don hanbok on special occasions, such as holidays or visits to palaces and hanok villages.
Despite its less frequent everyday use, hanbok is still crafted and studied today, enriching modern Korean culture. The tradition of hanbok culture continues to hold a significant place in the collective life of the Korean people.
Explore Traditional Food
Traditional Korean food represents a vital aspect of Korea’s cultural heritage. It can be broadly divided into royal court cuisine, which was prepared for kings and queens, and folk cuisine, which includes various types of kimchi, fermented sauces, and everyday foods.
Royal court cuisine is well-documented in historical records such as the Uigwe, detailing the royal dining table (surasang) and the elaborate banquets prepared for royal events. Royal cuisine encompasses hundreds of dishes, including staple foods, side dishes, rice cakes, sweets, and beverages.
On the other hand, folk cuisine, while more modest in variety, is highly diverse across different regions and families. Unlike court food, folk cuisine holds deep significance for many Koreans, as it reflects the essentials of Korean daily life. Kimchi and jang (fermented sauces) are indispensable in Korean traditional food culture, and they shape the uniqueness of Korean cuisine. The preparation of kimjang (the communal making of kimchi for winter) is a significant cultural event linked to Korean food traditions.
Explore Rituals
Korean rituals are observed across a wide range of practices. In state ceremonies, rituals include the Jongmyo Jerye, Sajik Daeje, and Seokjeon Daeje, while in the private sphere, there are ancestral rites and visits to ancestral graves (seongmyo) during Dano, Hansik, Chuseok, and Seollal. Additionally, in the realm of shamanism, local shamans (mudang) preside over rituals called gut, and certain byeolsingut (specialized shamanic rites) or festivals blend Confucian and shamanistic traditions. Yeongsanjae, a Buddhist ceremony for guiding the souls of the deceased to paradise, is another example of a religious ritual.
The essence of a ritual lies in the meeting between gods and humans. Depending on who the deity is, the nature of the ritual changes. In Korean rituals, deities might be ancestral spirits, spirits of the earth and crops, or a specific entity.
The reasons for these encounters vary: sometimes the ritual is performed to honor ancestors, other times to pray for blessings or to ward off bad fortune. These rituals require various offerings for the deities, so elements such as food, dance, music, and songs are integral to the ceremonies. These elements are combined to welcome, comfort, and send off the spirits.
Alongside the solemn and reverent atmosphere of certain rituals, there are also festive celebrations that combine dance, drama, food, and drink. In festivals where large numbers of people participate, rituals may include performances that satirize societal issues or express discontent with those in power through mask dances and theater. At the climax of these events, participants often march together, sharing the deeper meaning of the ritual with a wider audience. The Gangneung Danoje Festival, one of Korea’s most prominent intangible cultural heritages, showcases the diverse aspects of these rituals.
