歴史に関連する知識を伝えることで、韓国の遺産をよりよく楽しむ方法を紹介します。韓国の歴史における時間、空間、戦争、対外関係などの要素についての紹介です。
Explore Korean Heritage and Time
The first kingdom in Korean history is Gojoseon, founded by Dangun Wanggeom. Originally named Joseon, the term “Gojoseon” (literally meaning "Old Joseon") was later used to distinguish it from the later Joseon Dynasty. The foundation of Gojoseon is widely believed to have occurred in 2333 BCE, and this year became the basis for the Korean calendar era known as Dangi. In some modern and contemporary Korean historical records, dates beginning with 4000 correspond to this Dangi era.
Gojoseon fell in 108 BCE after attacks by the Han Dynasty of China. Around this time, many kingdoms emerged in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria, including Buyeo, Goguryeo, Dongye, and Okjeo in the north, and Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan in the central and southern regions.
Over time, these smaller states gradually unified into larger kingdoms: Goguryeo and Buyeo in the north, Baekje from the states of Mahan, Silla from the states of Jinhan, and Gaya from the states of Byeonhan. This period, known as the Three Kingdoms Era, also included Gaya, which lasted until the 6th century, and Buyeo, which persisted into the 5th century. The historical text Samguk Sagi played a key role in defining this era.
By the 7th century, competition among the Three Kingdoms intensified due to changes in regional geopolitics. Silla, the weakest of the three, formed an alliance with the Tang Dynasty and conquered Baekje and Goguryeo, ushering in the period of Unified Silla. The northern kingdom of Balhae, founded by the remnants of Goguryeo, coexisted with Silla during this time, leading to the era being referred to as the Northern and Southern States Period (Nambukguksidae), which spanned from the 7th century to the early 10th century.
In the 10th century, a shift occurred in the Northern and Southern States Period. Dissatisfaction with Silla’s central authority led to the founding of Later Baekje in 900 and Later Goguryeo in 901. This period of rivalry among the three states is known as the Later Three Kingdoms Period. Though short, lasting just over 30 years, it marked a transition toward the establishment of Goryeo.
Later Goguryeo, also known as Majin and Taebong, underwent internal strife, and Wang Geon ascended to the throne, renaming the kingdom Goryeo in 918. However, Goryeo still faced competition from Later Baekje and Silla. In 935, King Gyeongsun of Silla peacefully surrendered to Goryeo, and by 936, Later Baekje also capitulated, leading to the unification of the Later Three Kingdoms under Goryeo. Meanwhile, Balhae fell to the Khitan in 926, and many of its people fled to Goryeo.
Under the Goryeo Dynasty, diplomatic flexibility and military strength maintained the kingdom's stability, despite repeated warfare. Goryeo’s first major conflict was with the Khitan, or Liao Dynasty, which invaded three times between 993 and 1019. Goryeo emerged victorious in the final Battle of Gwiju, leading to peace with Liao.
Around a century later, Goryeo faced incursions by the Jurchen in its northeastern territories. In 1107, Goryeo formed a large military force, the Byeolmuban, and successfully repelled the Jurchen, establishing nine forts. However, Goryeo eventually returned the forts, choosing peace over prolonged conflict. This approach helped Goryeo maintain stability, and when the Jurchen later established the Jin Dynasty, they refrained from invading Goryeo, instead favoring diplomatic relations.
However, another century later, Mongol invasions began. By this time, Goryeo was ruled by military leaders following a coup. To resist the Mongols, the capital was moved from Gaegyeong to Ganghwa Island, and for 39 years, Goryeo fought against Mongol domination. Though Goryeo eventually made peace, it endured over 80 years of Mongol interference, losing territories such as Jeju Island and parts of the northeast and northwest.
In the late Goryeo period, as the Yuan Dynasty weakened, Goryeo regained independence through anti-Yuan policies and restored lost territories. However, Wokou pirates and Hong Geon-jeok rebellions brought chaos to the kingdom. Amid this turmoil, the emerging Sadaebu (Confucian scholars) allied with General Yi Seong-gye, founding a new kingdom, Joseon, in 1392. Joseon soon relocated its capital to Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) in 1394.
Joseon, which embraced Neo-Confucianism as its state ideology, diverged greatly from Goryeo in culture and governance. For example, unlike Goryeo’s capital, where Buddhist temples were abundant, Joseon’s Hanyang was devoid of temples after its early years. Instead, Confucian institutions like Jongmyo, Sajik, Sungkyunkwan, and hyanggyo filled the landscape.
For the first 200 years of Joseon, the kingdom enjoyed peace without war, until 1592, when Japan invaded, igniting the seven-year Imjin War. This war devastated the country, including the destruction of its royal palaces. Consequently, the few pre-Imjin War relics that survived are now considered invaluable heritage treasures.
Before the wounds of the Imjin War could heal, Joseon faced another invasion, this time from the newly powerful Manchu Qing Dynasty in 1636. Although the Manchu invasion ended quickly, with the Joseon king surrendering, it left a profound psychological impact on the nation.
Afterward, Joseon maintained stable relations with both Japan and Qing, but failed to respond proactively to external changes. This led to the French Invasion of 1866, the American Invasion of 1871, and the opening of Busan, Wonsan, and Incheon to foreign trade under pressure from Japan in 1876. By 1882, Joseon had signed a treaty with the United States, followed by agreements with several Western countries.
Amid efforts to modernize, Joseon faced internal and external challenges. The Donghak Peasant Revolution of 1894 failed, further weakening the kingdom. In 1897, King Gojong declared the establishment of the Korean Empire (Daehan Empire) and ascended as emperor. However, Japan's aggression escalated, culminating in the forced signing of the Eulsa Treaty in 1905, which deprived Korea of its diplomatic sovereignty, and by 1910, Korea was fully annexed by Japan.
Koreans resisted colonial rule through the independence movement, and on March 1, 1919, the March 1st Movement sparked the establishment of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea. The long struggle for independence culminated in Korea’s liberation on August 15, 1945. However, the Cold War led to the division of the peninsula, with separate governments forming in the north and south. On August 15, 1948, the Republic of Korea was established in the south, while North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) formed in the north.
In 1950, the Korean War broke out, leaving deep scars on the nation. The war ended with an armistice on July 27, 1953, and the division of Korea continues to this day.
Explore Korean Heritage and Space
Korea's administrative divisions have been shaped by its long history. For instance, the names of provinces, known as ‘Do’, are often derived from the names of two significant cities in the region. Gangwon-do comes from Gangneung and Wonju, Gyeongsang-do from Gyeongju and Sangju, Jeolla-do from Jeonju and Naju, and Chungcheong-do from Chungju and Cheongju. Gyeonggi-do, however, is different, as ‘Gi’ refers to the area surrounding the capital, giving it the meaning of the region encircling Seoul.
In the late Joseon Dynasty, these provinces were divided into northern and southern parts, except for Gyeonggi-do, Hwanghae-do, and Gangwon-do, leading to names like Gyeongsangnam-do and Gyeongsangbuk-do. Jeju Island, originally part of Jeolla-do, became an independent region. Recently, Jeju, Gangwon, and Jeollabuk-do were designated as ‘Special Autonomous Provinces’, though many still refer to them by their traditional names.
North Korea also followed this naming convention but later added new administrative regions like Jagang-do and Yanggang-do.
Although most Korean place names can be written in Hanja (Chinese characters), there is one exception: Seoul. Unlike most city names, Seoul originates from a native Korean word meaning "capital," and it became the official name after Korea’s liberation from Japanese rule.
Additionally, Korea’s regions are referred to by broader names like Yeongnam and Honam, or Yeongdong and Yeongseo. Yeongnam, which means "south of the pass," refers to the Gyeongsang provinces, south of Mungyeong Saejae Pass. Honam refers to the Jeolla provinces, meaning "south of the river" (referring to the Geum River). Yeongdong and Yeongseo are defined by the Taebaek Mountains, with Yeongdong being the eastern coastal region and Yeongseo being the western inland region.
Explore Korean Heritage and War
Korea's cultural heritage has often been the victim of war, a fate shared by many nations. Understanding the impact of wars on Korea’s heritage offers valuable insights into the significance of these sites. Let’s explore some key moments when war profoundly affected Korea’s cultural assets.
First, wars that led to the collapse of kingdoms inflicted severe damage on their cultural heritage. In ancient times, a kingdom's capital often concentrated its most precious national treasures. Therefore, the fall of a capital often meant significant losses. For example, the Battle of Wanggeomseong in 108 BCE, which marked the fall of Gojoseon, or the battles at Sabi (660) and Pyeongyang (668), which hastened the collapse of Baekje and Goguryeo, respectively.
Consequently, many of Goguryeo and Baekje’s remaining cultural artifacts are stone structures like pagodas or tombs, which were less susceptible to fire. In contrast, Silla, which surrendered peacefully to Goryeo, saw less direct damage to its capital, Gyeongju.
However, during the Mongol invasions of the 13th century, Gyeongju was devastated, with significant cultural heritage, such as the Hwangnyongsa Wooden Pagoda, being destroyed by fire. Even Goryeo's Daejanggyong (the original Tripitaka Koreana), stored at Buinsa Temple in Daegu, was lost, though it was later replaced by the famous Tripitaka Koreana stored at Haeinsa.
The Imjin War (1592-1598), one of the most devastating in Korean history, destroyed the royal palaces in Hanyang (Seoul) and many hyanggyo (Confucian academies) and temples across the peninsula. The war also caused a significant cultural loss, as many Korean ceramic artisans were forcibly taken to Japan, effectively ending the tradition of Buncheong ceramics in Korea.
The Korean War (1950-1953) also inflicted severe damage on Korea’s cultural heritage.
Although many treasures were safeguarded by relocating them to Busan, a fire broke out after the war, destroying many royal treasures, including the royal portraits of kings. Numerous temples also fell victim to the war.
The Tripitaka Koreana, which miraculously survived the Mongol invasions, pirate raids, the Imjin War, and the Korean War, stands as a testament to the resilience of Korea’s cultural heritage. Recognizing the harrowing history that these artifacts have endured deepens our appreciation for their survival and significance.
Explore Korean Heritage and International Relations
International exchanges have always played a significant role in shaping Korean culture and heritage. Gojoseon is already mentioned in ancient Chinese records, indicating early interactions between Korea and its neighbors.
The Three Kingdoms—Goguryeo, Baekje, Silla, and Gaya—actively engaged in foreign relations. The transmission of Buddhism to these kingdoms is a clear example of this cultural exchange. Evidence of these exchanges can also be found in ancient tomb murals and artifacts. For instance, the wrestlers depicted in Goguryeo's tomb murals and the guardian statues at the tomb of King Wonseong in Gyeongju suggest contacts with Central Asia. Baekje's Tomb of King Muryeong reveals connections with China's Southern Dynasties and Japan. Furthermore, artifacts from the Gaya confederacy and Mahan tombs near Naju suggest trade links with Southeast Asia.
During the Goryeo Dynasty, Korea engaged in vibrant maritime trade, particularly through Byeokrando, near the mouth of the Yesong River. It was during this time that the name ‘Korea’ (derived from Goryeo) became known internationally. Although Goryeo suffered during the Mongol invasions, its scholars and officials were exposed to new cultural influences through Yuan Dynasty connections.
Joseon, founded in the late 14th century, initially maintained active diplomatic ties with neighboring nations like Ming China, Japan, the Ryukyu Kingdom, and the Jurchens. However, after the Imjin War and the Manchu invasions (Byeongjahoran), Joseon limited its foreign relations to China and Japan. Nonetheless, Western inventions like telescopes, clocks, and the Kunyu Wanguo Quantu (a world map) were introduced to Korea via Qing China.
In 1876, the signing of the Treaty of Ganghwa opened Korea to the world, beginning a new chapter of global interaction that continues to this day.
